Introduction and defined terms

Key messages

• 1Plastics data is weak globally — fragmented across agencies, collected under inconsistent definitions, and rarely comparable over time or between countries.
• 2Progress does not require completeness. A three-level path lets a country locate itself and take the next step, from improving a single data category to publishing SEEA-aligned National Plastics Accounts.
• 3A seven-step workflow builds the system: identify sources, assess quality, draft the inventory, analyse gaps, engage stakeholders, verify, and institutionalise.

1.1 Introduction

1Plastic pollution crosses national borders and originates from diverse sources, ranging from single-use products to industrial waste streams. This creates complex challenges for regulation and environmental management. The ongoing negotiations under the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) to develop a legally binding international instrument on plastic pollution, including in the marine environment (UNEP, 2022), underscore the urgency of building evidence-based policy frameworks at both national and international levels.

2Countries worldwide recognise the urgent need to better understand how plastics move through their economies and environment. Yet plastics data remains weak globally, with significant gaps in availability, quality, accessibility and comparability (OECD, 2022). Limited technical capacity, insufficient funding and fragmented institutional infrastructure all compound the problem. Information is often siloed across agencies and sectors, collected using inconsistent definitions and monitoring protocols, making meaningful comparison and trend tracking difficult. Without robust, standardised datasets, policymakers lack the evidence base necessary to design targeted regulations, allocate resources efficiently, and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions. Addressing these systemic gaps requires data collection systems capable of quantifying pollution sources, tracking distribution patterns, and measuring the impact of policy measures.

3Data on plastics spans the full life cycle: from production through to trade, waste management and environmental release (Geyer et al., 2017; Jambeck et al., 2015). Identifying, collecting and organising that data to inform policy and guide decision-makers presents significant technical and institutional challenges.

4This Handbook is designed to address these challenges by supporting government officials and other users to identify relevant data sources and improve data collection methodologies. It supports the establishment of robust plastics data systems and the strengthening of institutional capacity and national systems for ongoing data management. The Handbook provides guidance across all stages of the plastics life cycle, while considering the roles of key stakeholders, from data generators to policymakers.

5As a result, the Handbook aims to improve plastic data systems that will enable countries to effectively track progress on both national and international commitments to prevent and reduce plastic pollution across its full life cycle.

1.1.1 Objectives of this Handbook

1The Handbook provides a step-by-step approach to enhancing national plastics data systems. Whether the user is focused on improving a single data category or building a comprehensive system, it provides practical guidance.

2Not all countries will be able to collect data across the entire plastics life cycle immediately, and in some cases, this may not be necessary. The Handbook therefore supports incremental development, where improvements to individual data categories constitute meaningful progress toward better plastics management. A three-level path forward that underpins this approach is set out in Section 1.2.

1.1.2 Scope of this Handbook

1The Handbook provides practical guidance for improving plastics data at each key stage of the plastics life cycle (Figure 1.1). The data categories include production data, trade data, consumption data, waste generation and collection data, treatment and disposal data, and data on plastics in the environment. The guidance applies to plastics consumed and disposed of within household, non-household, commercial and industrial settings.

2The Handbook does not cover the extraction and processing of raw materials prior to their manufacture into plastic pellets or other forms of primary plastic. Further research is needed to develop guidance on translating these upstream flows into meaningful data. The Handbook does not provide explicit guidance specific to biodegradable materials or microplastics. However, many of the methodologies described can be applied or adapted to these categories.

3Figure 1.1. The Plastics Life Cycle (GRID-Arendal, 2021).

4[Figure file not yet in the repository — GRID-Arendal, 2021.]

1.1.3 Who this handbook is for

1The Handbook is suitable for policymakers and government officials responsible for environmental management, waste systems, and statistical development. The methodologies are also relevant to a broad range of stakeholders, including technical specialists, intergovernmental organisations, industries and researchers.

2The methodologies presented are deliberately flexible and scalable. This ensures that all countries, regardless of economic development status, geographic context, or existing data capacities, can meaningfully participate in addressing plastic pollution through improved plastics data collection.

1.1.4 Relationship to international processes

1Improved national plastics data systems will help countries meet their reporting obligations under any future international agreement on plastic pollution and will support implementation of relevant Sustainable Development Goals (United Nations, 2015), in particular SDG 12 (sustainable consumption and production) and SDG 14 (life below water, including target 14.1 on reducing marine pollution). The Handbook is designed to complement the work of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), the Global Partnership on Plastic Pollution and Marine Litter (GPML), and the Global Plastics Hub.

1.1.5 Reporting frequency

1National plastics data systems are designed to report annually, with inventories and accounts updated each year. Reporting on a regular yearly cycle keeps the data consistent over time and comparable with other national statistics, including material flow accounts and the environmental-economic statistics compiled under the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA).

1.2 A Three-Level Path Forward

1.2.1 The three levels

1Countries approach building national plastics data systems from very different starting points, and meaningful progress is possible at every level. The Handbook reflects this through a three-level path forward, not because every country must reach the highest level, but to give a common reference against which a country can locate itself and choose its next step (Figure 1.2).

2Figure 1.2. A three-level path forward.

3[Figure file not yet in the repository — UNSW Centre for Sustainable Development Reform.]

Level 1: Improving National Plastics Data

1At Level 1, the priority is to improve specific data categories that align with the country’s national priorities. A country at Level 1 may, for example, focus on improving the quality of waste collection records from its municipal authorities, or on extending coverage of plastics-related trade statistics under the Harmonised System (HS) codes. Each improvement strengthens the foundation for higher-level work.

2Level 1 is the appropriate entry point for the majority of countries that do not yet have a comprehensive plastics data inventory. Improvements at Level 1 are not only preparatory. Targeted improvements to a single data category can themselves support significant policy decisions, for example on Extended Producer Responsibility schemes or on packaging waste regulations.

Level 2: National Plastics Data Inventory

1At Level 2, sufficient coverage has been achieved across multiple data categories to allow the development of a National Plastics Data Inventory. The Inventory is a comprehensive collection of data points that measure and track plastic flows across the value chain including production, trade, consumption, waste generation, treatment and environmental releases.

2A Plastics Data Inventory enables a country to understand the overall scale and structure of plastic flows in its economy and environment, to identify the largest sources of leakage, and to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions. The Inventory is typically maintained and updated on an annual basis.

Level 3: National Plastics Accounts

1At Level 3, the data underpinning the Inventory are organised into a structured statistical framework that reveals the relationships between economic activities and environmental outcomes. Plastics Accounts integrate data from multiple sources over time into a coherent system aligned with the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA).

2Plastics Accounts allow a country to track plastics in a way that is compatible with national accounts, to link plastic flows to economic sectors and to compare its progress with other countries using the same measures. The development of Plastics Accounts requires sustained institutional commitment, standardised methodologies, and ongoing data collection capacity.

1.2.2 Entry criteria

1Table 1.1 sets out the entry criteria for each level. A country need not meet every criterion to reach a given level. The table serves as a general guide rather than a firm requirement.

2Table 1.1. Indicative entry criteria for each level.

Criterion	Level 1 — Improving National Plastics Data	Level 2 — National Plastics Data Inventory	Level 3 — National Plastics Accounts
Data categories covered	One or more priority categories	All life cycle stages with at least partial coverage	All life cycle stages with annual coverage
Institutional arrangements	A designated unit responsible for the category	A formal coordinating mechanism across agencies	Statutory authority for ongoing reporting
Methodology	Use of existing data; methodologies as available	Documented methodologies; increasingly standardised across categories	SEEA-aligned methodologies; explicit treatment of system boundaries
Reporting frequency	Ad hoc or as updates allow	Annual	Annual, with multi-year trend analysis
Public dissemination	Sector reports	National plastics dashboard or report	Plastics Accounts published alongside related environmental-economic accounts

Box 1.1: Defining National Plastics Data System, Inventory and Accounts

National plastics data system: The institutional, methodological and technical arrangements through which a country produces, manages and disseminates national statistics on plastics. A national plastics data system typically supports a plastics inventory and, at higher levels of maturity, plastics accounts.

National plastics inventory: A comprehensive collection of data points that measure and track plastic flows through an economy, including production, trade, consumption, waste generation, collection, treatment, disposal and environmental releases.

National plastics accounts: A structured statistical framework that organises plastics data to show the flows of plastic as it moves into and between the economy and the environment. Aligned with the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA), these accounts integrate data from various sources over time into a coherent system that can inform policy development and monitor progress toward sustainability goals.

1.3 How a Country Uses This Handbook

1The Handbook’s seven-step workflow guides how a country builds its national plastics data system. It is intentionally short: each step is documented in its own chapter in Part II, and each data category is documented in its own chapter in Part III.

1.3.1 The seven-step workflow for developing a national plastics data system

1The Handbook organises the development of a national plastics data system into seven steps. The steps are presented in a logical sequence, but the precise sequencing should be adapted to a country’s specific circumstances.

2Step 1: Identify Data Sources and Map Stakeholders. Existing data sources are reviewed and recorded in the Plastics Data Checklist. As each entry identifies a source organisation, this step also generates an initial list of stakeholders: those who hold or use plastics data.

3Step 2: Assess Data Quality. Each identified source is assessed and scored for availability and reliability, allowing later steps to distinguish between data that meets the required standard and data that requires further development.

4Step 3: Build the First Draft of the Data Inventory. The data identified and assessed under Steps 1 and 2 is compiled into the first draft of the Inventory, with data gaps and underlying assumptions clearly identified.

5Step 4: Analyse Gaps and Set Priorities. The first version of the Inventory is used to identify genuine data gaps and decide which to address first, taking into account both data quality and the relative urgency of different reporting and policy needs.

6Step 5: Engage Stakeholders to Close Priority Gaps. The prioritised gaps identified in Step 4 are used to approach the specific stakeholders holding the relevant data, through structured and lasting engagement rather than a general call for information.

7Step 6: Improve, Verify and Consolidate the Inventory. Data received from stakeholders are incorporated into the Inventory, remaining gaps are addressed through the collection of primary data, and the resulting Inventory is presented to stakeholders for verification prior to being finalised as the working version.

8Step 7: Institutionalise and Sustain the System. A durable institutional mandate is established, coordination arrangements are agreed among the institutions responsible for the various reporting and policy uses of the Inventory, and the system is embedded to ensure its ongoing operation and continuous update as new data becomes available.

1.3.2 Adaptation to national context

1The seven steps are presented in a logical order, but they do not need to be followed strictly in sequence. Some countries may prefer to begin with stakeholder mapping or institutional capacity assessment before undertaking data analysis, while others might conduct these analyses at the same time. The sequence can be tailored to align with existing national priorities, available resources and institutional structures. The critical consideration is that all components are systematically addressed in a manner appropriate to each country’s specific context and requirements.

1.3.3 Suggested reading pathways by maturity level

1Level 1 — Improving National Plastics Data. The priority is to improve specific data categories aligned with national priorities. This is the appropriate entry point for countries without yet a comprehensive plastics data inventory. Recommended reading:

• 2Part II — The Seven-Step Workflow: Step 1 (Identify Data Sources and Map Stakeholders), Step 2 (Assess Data Quality) and Step 3 (Build the First Draft of the Data Inventory)
• 3Part III — Data Category Guides: chapters relevant to the data categories the country has chosen to prioritise

4Level 2 — National Plastics Data Inventory. Sufficient coverage has been achieved across multiple data categories to support development of a National Plastics Data Inventory. Recommended reading:

• 5Part II — The Seven-Step Workflow: Step 4 (Analyse Gaps and Set Priorities), Step 5 (Engage Stakeholders to Close Priority Gaps) and Step 6 (Improve, Verify and Consolidate the Inventory)
• 6Part III — Data Category Guides: the full set
• 7Part IV — Cross-Cutting Methodologies

8Level 3 — National Plastics Accounts. The data underpinning the Inventory is organised into a structured statistical framework aligned with the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA), revealing the relationships between economic activities and environmental outcomes. Recommended reading:

• 9Part II — The Seven-Step Workflow: Step 7 (Institutionalise and Sustain the System)
• 10Part IV — Cross-Cutting Methodologies

Box 1.2: Supporting Tools

Two supporting tools developed by the UNSW CSDR Plastics team accompany the Handbook.

The Plastics Data Checklist is the working instrument used in Steps 1 to 3. It allows a country to record the data sources it has identified, to score them for availability and reliability, and to translate the scoring into a prioritised list of gaps. The Checklist is referenced repeatedly in the workflow chapters.

The Global Plastics Data Tracker is a digital platform that supports recording, comparing and sharing national plastics data. It complements the Handbook and is referenced in Step 1.

The Handbook is also designed to be used alongside global tools such as the UNEP/UNITAR Statistical guideline for measuring flows of plastic throughout the life cycle and the Global Plastics Hub, which provides international resources, case studies and integrated data.

Box 1.3: Related frameworks

System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA): The international statistical standard for integrating economic and environmental data, adopted by the United Nations Statistical Commission. This includes the SEEA Central Framework (SEEA CF) and SEEA Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA). The SEEA provides the foundational framework for the development of Plastics Accounts (United Nations et al., 2014; 2021).

Material Flow Analysis (MFA): A systematic assessment of the flows and stocks of materials within a system defined in space and time (Brunner & Rechberger, 2016). MFA is a primary methodological tool for quantifying physical flows of plastics through an economy and is closely related to SEEA physical flow accounts.

Waste hierarchy: A conceptual ranking of waste management options in order of environmental desirability, typically: prevention, reduction, reuse, recycling, recovery (including energy recovery), and disposal (European Union, 2008).

1.3.4 Key Terms and Concepts

1Key concepts used throughout the Handbook are grouped thematically in this section.

Types of plastics

1Table 1.2. Types of plastics.

Term	Definition
Macroplastics	Plastic particles, fragments or items greater than 5 mm in their largest dimension.
Microplastics	Plastic particles, fragments or fibres less than 5 mm in their largest dimension, including both primary microplastics manufactured at that size and secondary microplastics resulting from the fragmentation of larger plastic items (GESAMP, 2019).
Nanoplastics (used in some literature)	Plastic particles smaller than 1 micrometre (Gigault et al., 2018). Not addressed in this Handbook but flagged for users developing advanced monitoring.

Plastic forms

1Table 1.3. Plastic forms.

Term	Definition
Plastic in primary forms	Raw plastic polymers in their initial state after polymerisation, typically in the form of resins, powders, granules, flakes, pellets, liquids, or pastes that have not yet been processed into specific products.
Semi-finished plastic products	Plastic materials that have been processed from primary forms into standardised shapes, forms, or components intended for further processing, fabrication, or assembly into finished products.
Plastic in finished products	Products made wholly or partially from plastic that have completed all manufacturing processes and are in their final form for distribution, sale, and use by end consumers or businesses.

2Table 1.4. Packaging Tiers.

Term	Definition
Primary packaging	Packaging in direct contact with the product itself (for example, a bottle holding a liquid, or a wrapper directly enclosing an item).
Secondary packaging	Packaging that groups a number of primary-packaged units together (for example, a box containing several bottles).
Tertiary packaging	Packaging used for bulk handling, storage and transport of multiple secondary-packaged units (for example, shrink-wrap or a pallet wrap for a full shipment).

Plastics in the economy

1Table 1.5. Plastics in the economy.

Term	Definition
Plastic production	The total weight of virgin and recycled plastic materials manufactured within a country’s economic territory during a specified reporting period (typically annual). The metric encompasses primary production of plastic pellets, as well as the conversion of these materials into intermediate and finished plastic products by domestic manufacturers. Production is reported gross.
Plastic consumption	The aggregate weight of plastic materials utilised within a country’s economic territory during the reporting period. Plastic consumption accounts for all plastic materials entering the national economy, regardless of origin, and excludes domestically produced plastics exported for foreign consumption. Where direct measurement is unavailable, consumption is typically computed as apparent consumption, equal to production plus imports minus exports.
Virgin plastics consumption	The total weight of manufactured plastic materials derived from petrochemical feedstocks (primarily oil and natural gas) consumed within a country’s economic territory during the reporting period. Virgin plastics consumption represents materials entering the economy for the first time, before any recycling or recovery processes.
Recycled plastics consumption	The aggregate weight of post-consumer and post-industrial plastic materials that have undergone recycling processes and are subsequently consumed in products within a country’s economic territory during the reporting period. The metric encompasses mechanical, chemical, and other forms of recycled plastic materials incorporated into new products or packaging.

Waste flows and waste treatment

1Table 1.6. Waste flows and waste treatment.

Term	Definition
Plastic waste generated	The total quantity of plastic materials discarded as waste by a population and its economic activities within defined system boundaries during a specified time period, regardless of subsequent fate. It represents the amount of plastics entering the waste stream before any treatment, recovery, disposal, or leakage occurs. It includes all plastic polymer types and applications discarded after their intended use, expressed typically in mass units (kilograms or tonnes) per specified timeframe.
Plastic waste collected	The amount of plastic waste collected by formal or informal waste management systems for further processing, treatment, or disposal. Plastic waste collected is measured at the point of collection, before sorting or processing, and may include contamination and materials that will be rejected during subsequent processing.
Uncollected waste	All plastic waste generated that is not captured by formal or informal waste collection systems and remains in the environment, including waste that is dumped, burned, or leaked into natural systems.
Municipal waste	Plastic waste typically associated with household consumption, including packaging, food scraps, and consumables, as well as waste arising within small businesses. Municipal waste comprises household and non-household waste.
Household waste	Plastic waste generated by households and residential settings.
Non-household waste	Household-like plastic waste that arises outside the home, including from public spaces, tourism activities, small businesses and institutional settings such as schools, hospitals, and government buildings.
Commercial and industrial waste	Plastics discarded from manufacturing processes, commercial activities, construction and demolition operations, and other industrial sectors.
Waste treated	The quantity of plastic waste that undergoes any form of processing or treatment, including mechanical recycling, chemical recycling, energy recovery, or other treatment processes. Waste treated is typically measured after sorting and cleaning processes.
Recovered tonnes	The amount of plastic material that successfully completes the recycling process and leaves the facility as a recycled commodity ready to be sold to an end market. The measurement occurs after sorting and processing, when the material has been transformed into recyclate that can be used to manufacture new products.
Reuse	The continued use of plastic items or packaging in their original form for the same or a different application, without significant modification, maximising their utility before they enter the waste stream.
Repair	The restoration of damaged plastic products to functional condition, prolonging their usable life as a means of waste prevention.
Upcycling	The creative transformation of plastic waste into new products of higher quality or environmental value than the original.
Mechanical recycling	The physical processing of plastic waste through sorting, washing, shredding, melting, and remoulding to produce recycled plastic pellets or products without altering the basic chemical structure of the polymer.
Chemical recycling	Advanced technologies that break down plastic polymers into their basic chemical constituents (monomers or other basic chemicals). These chemical building blocks can then be used to produce new plastics or other chemical products. Chemical recycling, as used in this Handbook, does not include processes whose principal output is energy.
Pyrolysis	The thermal decomposition of plastic waste in an oxygen-free environment at temperatures typically between 300 and 900 degrees Celsius, converting polymers into liquid oil, synthesis gas, and char residue.
Gasification	A high-temperature thermal process (typically above 700 degrees Celsius) that converts plastic waste into synthesis gas (syngas) through partial oxidation with controlled amounts of oxygen or steam.
Co-processing	The simultaneous recovery of energy and recycling of mineral content from waste in industrial processes, particularly cement production, where plastics replace fossil fuels and any mineral content becomes incorporated into the final product.
Waste-to-Energy	Controlled combustion of plastic waste in specialised facilities to generate electricity, heat, or steam, while managing emissions and capturing pollutants.
Residual waste	Plastic materials that remain after processing and cannot be recycled in current systems, typically destined for landfill or incineration.
Open dumping and burning	Waste that is deliberately discarded in unauthorised, uncontrolled or unmanaged locations without proper containment or treatment. This includes waste that is deliberately set on fire as a means of volume reduction.
Fly tipping	The deliberate disposal of large items or quantities of litter (for example, a broken refrigerator or a single large bag of rubbish) in a random location.
Littering	Incorrect disposal of small, one-off items that are not collected by managed waste methods.

Collection systems

1Table 1.7. Collection systems.

Term	Definition
Formal collection systems	Government-approved or contracted services operating through established infrastructure with regular schedules, designated equipment, and official protocols.
Informal collection systems	Activities performed by waste pickers, scavengers, and small-scale entrepreneurs who gather valuable plastic materials for sale to recyclers without formal integration into municipal systems.
Community-based collection systems	Organised initiatives led by environmental groups, community organisations, and volunteer networks that conduct regular or periodic plastic waste collection through cleanups, targeted collection drives, and awareness campaigns.

Environmental sampling and monitoring

1Table 1.8. Environmental sampling and monitoring.

Term	Definition
Environmental sampling for debris	The process of collecting samples of debris from the environment.
Environmental monitoring of debris	The continuous sampling, observation or assessment of the environment over time. This technique is often used to identify changes or trends over time.